"Leveling the Playing Field:" The Effects of Online Second Language Instruction on Student Willingness to Communicate in French
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.11139/cj.27.2.277-297Keywords:
Online Learning, Willingness to Communicate, French, Anxiety, Perceived Competence, Heritage Language LearnersAbstract
Second language (L2) instruction in the United States has in recent history experienced significant change. Instead of emphasizing grammatical accuracy, L2 teachers are now asked to focus on developing student communication skills. Furthermore, L2 classrooms are being transformed via the growth of computer-mediated instruction. Traditional, face-to-face L2 classrooms are frequently being supplemented (or even replaced) by online instruction. Despite these two relatively recent phenomena, little research conducted in North America has investigated the effect of one change on the other. In this study the researchers investigated the effects of online L2 instruction on student willingness to communicate in the L2. Six postsecondary students taking an online French course completed a questionnaire at the beginning and the end of the semester and had their communication in the L2 monitored over the course of the semester. The results were then further explored during student interviews. Results indicated that not only did the online environment help to reduce L2 anxiety and increase perceived competence in the language but also was able to meet the varying needs of the diverse students.
References
Abrams, Zs. (2003a). The effects of synchronous and asynchronous CMC on oral performance. The Modern Language Journal, 87, 157-167.
Abrams, Zs. (2003b). Flaming in CMC: Prometheus’ fire or Inferno’s? CALICO Journal, 20, 245-260. Retrieved October 11, 2009, from https://calico.org/page.php?id=5
Allen, I. A., & Seaman, J. (2007). Online nation: Five years of growth in online learning. Needham, MA: Sloan Consortium. Retrieved July 24, 2008, from http://www.sloan-c.org/publications/survey/pdf/online_nation.pdf
Arnold, N. (2007). Reducing foreign language communication apprehension with computer-mediated communication: A preliminary study. System, 35, 469-486.
Arnold, N. & Ducate, L. (2006). CALL: Where are we and where do we go from here? In L Ducate & N. Arnold (Eds.), Calling on CALL: From theory and research to new directions in foreign language teaching (pp. 1-20). San Marcos, TX: CALICO.
Baker, S., & MacIntyre, P. (2000). The role of gender and immersion in communication and second language orientations. Language Learning, 50, 311-341.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Beauvois, M. H. (1997). Computer-mediated communication (CMC): Technology for improving speaking and writing. In M. D. Bush & R. M. Terry (Eds.), Technology-enhanced language learning (pp.165-184). Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Company.
Beauvois, M. (1998). Conversations in slow motion: Computer-mediated communication in the foreign language classroom. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 54, 198-217.
Brecht, R. D., & Ingold, C. W. (2002, May). Tapping a national resource: Heritage languages in the United States. Retrieved October 11, 2009, from http://www.cal.org/resources/digest/0202brecht.html
Brown, H. D. (2007). Principles of language learning and teaching (5th ed.). White Plains, NY: Pearson Education Inc.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Creswell, J. W. (2002). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.
Cummings, M. C. (2004). “Because we are shy and fear mistaking”: Computer mediated communication with EFL writers. Journal of Basic Writing, 23(2), 23-48.
Cummings, M. C., Katoku, C., Nichols, J., & Russell, J. (2001, March). Meeting the challenges of webbased instruction. Paper presented at the International TESOL Conference, St. Louis, MO.
Dörnyei, Z. (2001). New themes and approaches in second language motivation research. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 21, 43-59.
Fishman, J. A. (2001). 300-plus years of heritage language education in the United States. In J. K. Peyton, D. A. Ranard, & S. McGinnis (Eds.), Heritage languages in America: Preserving a national resource (pp. 81–98). McHenry, IL: The Center for Applied Linguistics and Delta Systems.
Freiermuth, M., & Jarrell, D. (2006). Willingness to communicate: Can online chat help? International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 16, 189-212.
Glaser, B. G. (1992). Basics of grounded theory analysis: Emergence vs. forcing. Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press.
James, M. (1996). The role of orientation and perceived personal causation in the motivation of adult ESL learners. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Windsor, Ontario, Canada.
Kissau, S. (2006). Gender differences in motivation to learn French. Canadian Modern Language Review, 62, 401-422.
Kondo-Brown, K. (2005). Differences in language skills: Heritage language learner subgroups and foreign language learners. Modern Language Journal, 89, 563-581.
Luke, C., & Britten, J. (2007). The expanding role of technology in foreign language teacher education programs. CALICO Journal, 24, 253-267. Retrieved October 11, 2009, from https://calico.org/page.php?id=5
MacIntyre, P. D. (1994). Variables underlying willingness to communicate: A causal analysis. Communication Research Reports, 12, 241-247.
MacIntyre, P. D.,& Charos, C. (1996). Personality, attitudes, and affect as predictors of second language communication. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 15, 3-26.
MacIntyre, P., Baker, S., Clément, R., & Donovan, L. (2002). Sex and age effects on willingness to communicate, anxiety, perceived competence, and L2 motivation among junior high school French immersion students. Language Learning, 53, 137-165.
MacIntyre, P., & Clément, R. (1996, August). A model of willingness to communicate in a second language: The concept, its antecedents and implications. Paper presented at the World Congress of Applied Linguistics (AILA), Jyvaskyla, Finland.
MacIntyre, P., Clément, R., Dörnyei, Z., & Noels, K. (1998). Conceptualizing willingness to communicate in a L2: A situated model of confidence and affiliation. Modern Language Journal, 82, 545-562.
MacIntyre, P., & Gardner, R. (1991). Methods and results in the study of anxiety and language learning: A review of the literature. Language Learning, 41, 85-117.
Matsumura, S., & Hann, G. (2004). Computer anxiety and students’ preferred feedback methods in EFL writing. Modern Language Journal, 88, 403-415.
McCroskey, J., & McCroskey, L. (1986, May). Predictors of willingness to communicate: Implications for screening and remediation. Paper presented at the annual convention of the International Communication Association, Chicago.
McCroskey, J. C., & McCroskey, L. L. (1988). Self-report as an approach to measuring communication competence. Communication Research Reports, 5, 108-113.
McCroskey, J. C., & Richmond, V. P. (1987). Willingness to communicate. In J. C. McCroskey & J. A. Daly (Eds.), Personality and interpersonal communication (pp. 129-156). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Meskill, C., & Anthony, N. (2007). Learning to orchestrate online instructional conversations: A case of faculty development for foreign language educators. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 20, 5-19.
Naiman, N., Frölich, M., Stern, H., & Todesco, A. (1978). The good language learner. Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education.
Nunan, D. (1999). A foot in the world of ideas: Graduate study through the internet. Language Learning & Technology, 3(1), 52-74. Retrieved October 11, 2009, from http://llt.msu.edu/vol3num1/nunan
Oxford, R. (1999). Anxiety and the language learner: New insights. In J. Arnold (Ed.), Affect in language learning (pp. 58-67). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Payne, J. S., & Whitney, P. J. (2002). Developing L2 oral proficiency through synchronous CMC: Output, working memory, and interlanguage development. CALICO Journal, 20, 7-32. Retrieved October 11, 2009, from https://calico.org/page.php?id=5
Porter, P. (1986). How learners talk to each other: Input and interaction in task-centered discussions. In R. Day. (Ed.), Talking to learn: Conversation in second language acquisition (pp. 200-222). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Richmond, V. P. (1978). The relationship between trait and state communication apprehension and interpersonal perception during acquaintance stages. Human Communication Research, 4, 338-349.
Thorne, S., & Payne, S. (2005). Evolutionary trajectories, Internet-mediated expression and language education. CALICO Journal, 22, 371-398. Retrieved October 11, 2009, from https://calico.org/page.php?id=5
Valdés, G. (2001). Heritage language students: Profiles and possibilities. In J. K. Peyton, D. A. Ranard, & S. McGinnis (Eds.), Heritage languages in America: Preserving a national resource (pp. 37–77). McHenry, IL: The Center for Applied Linguistics and Delta Systems.
Varonis, E., & Gass, S. (1985). Non-native/non-native conversations: A model for negotiation of meaning. Applied Linguistics, 6, 71-90.
