Teaching Chinese as a Second Language in China – The Cases of South Asians and Ethnic Koreans
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1558/lhs.v4i3.265Keywords:
Chinese language, second language acquisition, context, policy and practice, multiculturalismAbstract
Participation in every aspect of mainstream society requires knowledge of local language. Non-Chinese ethnic groups in Mainland China and Hong Kong face a challenge of predominant Chinese medium of instruction in order to reach a level of Chinese language proficiency. The research is a comparison of Chinese language studies among ethnic Koreans in Mainland China and South Asians in Hong Kong. The comparative analysis goes through three aspects: sociocultural context factors, policies and practices of Chinese language education. Since education never exists in a social vacuum, we highlight the importance of the interplay between the educational policy, practice and wider political, socioeconomic, cultural, and ideological contexts. It is argued that the Hong Kong government and Chinese government have gone to great lengths to accommodate Chinese language, but there is still room to further inclusive educational policies about the acquisition of Chinese language if a world-class multilingualism/multiculturalism is sought.
References
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Hurh, W. M. (1998) The Korean Americans. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
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Jiang, Y. D. (2006) Chaoxian zu zhongxiao xue shuangyu jiaoyu yanjiu, [Investigation into Korean bilingual primary and secondary education]. Paper presented at the Korean Chinese Education Forum (1906?2006), Yanbian University, China, 17?19 August.
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Johnson, R. K. and Swain M. (eds) (1997) Immersion Education: International Perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kim, S. J. (2003) The economic status and role of ethnic Koreans in China. In C. F. Bergsten and I, Choi (eds) The Korean Diaspora in the World Economy, 101?127. Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics.
Ku, H. B., Chan, K. W. and Sandhu, K. K. (2005) Education of South Asian Ethnic Minority Groups in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Centre for Social Policy Studies, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University.
Lee, C. J. (1986) China's Korean Minority: The Politics of Ethnic Education. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Lee, M. S. (2006) Becoming Multilingual: A Study of South Asian Students in a Hong Kong Secondary School, unpublished MA dissertation. The University of Hong Kong.
Lin, J. (1997) Policies and practices of bilingual education for the minorities in China. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 18 (3): 193?205. doi:10.1080/ 01434639708666314
Lin, Y. (2008) Cultural Exclusion in China: State Education, Social Mobility and Cultural Difference. London; New York: Routledge.
Loper, K. (2004) Race and Ethnicity: A Study of Ethnic Minorities in Hong Kong Education System. Hong Kong: Centre for Comparative and Public Law, The University of Hong Kong.
Losey, K. M. (1995) Gender and ethnicity as factors in the development of verbal skills in bilingual Mexican American women. TESOL Quarterly 29 (4): 635?661. doi:10.2307/ 3588167
Ma, C. H. (2004) Language Practice and Identity of Korean-Chinese Bilinguals in Yanji, PhD dissertation. Michigan State University.
Ma, R. (2003) Zhongguo ge zuqun zhijian de jiegou xing chayi [The structural disparities between China’s ethnic groups]. Shehui kexue zhanxian 4: 174?185.
Ma, X. L. (1953) Minzu zhengce wenxian huibian [Collections of China’s minority policy]. Beijing: Renmin chubanshe.
Mackerras, C. (1994) China’s Minorities: Integration and Modernization in the Twentieth Century. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.
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Ming Pao. (2006) Shegong: nanya yi jiazhang yu yuyan wenti xuexiao ‘nisi nijian’ que zhiyuan [Social workers: While South Asian parents face language problems, local schools are lack of support with the stereotyped view]. Retrieved 11 December 2006, from http:// hk.news.yahoo.com/060723/12/1qdo5.html.
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Olivier, B. V. (1993) The Implementation of China’s Nationality Policy in the Northeastern Provinces. San Francisco, CA: Mellen Research University Press.
Park, J. (2009) Leadership of Recognition: A Philosophical Study. Saarbrücken: VDM Verlag Dr Müller.
Piao, C. Y. (1990) The history of Koreans in China and the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture. In D. S. Suh and E. J. Shultz (eds) Koreans in China. Hawaii: The Center for Korean Studies, University of Hawaii.
Piao, W. Y. (2006) 21shiji zhishi jingji shidai chaoxian zu jichu jiaoyu de zitai yu keti, [Status quo and issues of Korean basic education in the 21st century knowledge economy]. Paper presented at the Korean Chinese Education Forum (1906-2006), Yanbian University, China, 17?19 August.
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Postiglione, G. A. (2000) National minority regions: Studying school discontinuation. In J. Liu, H. A. Ross and D. P. Kelly (eds) The Ethnographic Eye: An Interpretative Study of Education in China, 51?72. New York: Falmer Press.
Sautman, B. (1998) Preferential policies for ethnic minorities in China: The case of Xingjiang. In W. Safran (ed.) Nationalism and Ethnoregional Identities in China, 86?118. London: Frank Cass.
Schumann, J. (1986) Research on the acculturation model for second language acquisition. Journal of Multilingual and Muticultural Development 7 (5): 397?392. doi:10.1080/0143 4632.1986.9994254
Seeberg, V. (2001) Rhetoric and Reality of Mass Education in Mao’s China. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press.
Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (2000) Linguistic Genocide in Education – Or Worldwide Diversity and Human Rights? Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Sun, H. K., Hu, Z. Y. and Huang X. (2007) Zhongguo de yuyan [The languages of China]. Beijing: The Commercial Press.
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Zhang, T. L., and Huang, R. Q. (1996) Zhongguo shaoshu minzu renkou diaocha yanjiu, [Demographic studies on China’s minority nationalities]. Beijing: Higher Education Press.
Zhou, M. L. (2000) Language attitudes of two contrasting ethnic minority nationalities in China: The ‘model’ Koreans and the ‘rebellious’ Tibetans. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 146: 1?20. doi:10.1515/ijsl.2000.146.1
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Banks, J. (1989) Multicultural education: Characteristics and goals. In J. Banks and C. Banks (eds) Multicultural Education: Issues and Perspectives, 3?32. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Bourdieu, P. (1991). Language and Symbolic Power (J. B. Thompson, ed.; G. Raymond and M. Adamson, trans.). Cambridge: Polity Press.
Brewer, M. B. (2003) Intergroup Relations (2nd edn). Buckingham: Open University Press.
Census and Statistics Department. (2006) Population Census 2006: Thematic Report, Ethnic Minorities. Hong Kong: Census and Statistics Department.
Chan, K. P. (2005) ‘Great Leap Forward.’ It’s good for the government to see non-Chinese speaking (NCS) children as resources. Standard: A37.
Choi, S. (2004) Citizenship, education, and identity: A comparative study of ethnic Chinese in Korea and ethnic Koreans in China. International Journal of Educational Reform 13 (3): 253?266.
Choi, S. (2008) Korean exceptionalism?: History, culture, politics, and ethnic relations in Northeast China. In Z. Bekerman and E. Kopelowitz (eds) Cultural Education – Cultural Sustainability: Minority, Diaspora, Indigenous, and Ethno-religious Groups in Multicultural Societies, 147?163. New York: Routledge.
Choi, W. G. (2001) The Korean minority in China: The change of its identity. Development and Society 30 (1): 119?141.
Clothey, R. (2005) China’s policies for minority nationalities in higher education: Negotiating national values and ethnic identities. Comparative Education Review 49 (3): 389?428. doi:10.1086/430263
Cochran, S. M. and Lytle S. (1993) Inside/outside: Teacher Research and Knowledge. New York: Teachers College Press.
Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K. (2007) Research Methods in Education (6th edn). London: Routledge.
Cui, L. B. (1990) The position and development of Koreans in China. In D. S. Suh and E. J. Shultz (eds) Koreans in China, 78?92. Hawaii: The Center for Korean Studies, University of Hawaii.
Cummins, J. (1988) From multicultural to anti-racist education: An analysis of programs and policies in Ontario. In T. Skutnabb-Kangas and J. Cummins (eds) Minority Education: From Shame to Struggle. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Cummins, J. (2000). Language Power and Pedagogy. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Curriculum Development Council. (2008) Supplementaty Guide to the Chinese Language Curriculum for Non-Chinese Speaking Students. Hong Kong: Education Bureau.
Education Bureau. (2007) EMB Attaches Importance to Providing Education Support for Ethnic Minorities. Retrieved 2 December 2009 from http://www.edb.gov.hk/index. aspx?nodeID=5845&langno=1
Education Bureau. (2008) Consultation Paper on Developing a Supplementary Guide to the Chinese Language Curriculum for Non-Chinese Speaking Students. Retrieved from http:// www.edb.gov.hk/FileManager/TC/Content_93/devt_of_sg_to_chi_ncs_e.pdf
Fei, X. T. (1991) Zhonghua minzu yanjiu xin tance [New Explorations in China’s Ethnic Studies]. Beijing: Chinese Academy of Social Sciences Publishing House.
Feng, A. W. (ed.). (2007) Intercultural space for bilingual education. In A. W. Feng (ed.) Bilingual Education in China: Practices, Policies and Concepts, 259?286. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Gao, F. (2009a) Challenges of discourses on ‘model minority’ and ‘South Korean wind’ for ethnic Koreans’ schooling in Northeast China. Diaspora, Indigenous, and Minority Education 3 (2): 119?130.
Gao, F. (2009b) Language and power: Korean students’ language attitude and practice. Journal of Multilingual & Multicultural Development 30 (6): 525?534. doi:10.1080/0143 4630903147922
Gao, F. (2010) Being a Model Minority: Schooling Experiences of Ethnic Koreans in China. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.
Giddens, A. (1998) The Third Way: The Renewal of Social Democracy. Cambridge, Malden, MA: Polity Press; Blackwell.
Gladney, D. C. (1994) Representing nationality in China: Refiguring majority/minority identities. The Journal of Asian Studies 53 (1): 92?123. doi:10.2307/2059528
Guan, X. Q. (2001) Chaoxian zu shuangyu xianxiang chengyin lun. Beijing: Minzu chubanshe.
Hall, J. K. (1995) (Re)creating our worlds with worlds: A sociohistorical perspective on face-to-face interaction. Applied Linguistics 10 (1): 206?232. doi:10.1093/applin/16.2.206
Hansen, M. H. (1999) Lessons in Being Chinese: Minority Education and Ethnic Identity in Southwest China. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press.
Harper, T. N. (2002) Empire, diaspora, and the languages of globalism, 1850?1914. In A. G. Hopkins (ed.) Globalization in World History. London: Pimlico.
Harrell, S. (ed.) (1995) Cultural Encounters on China’s Ethnic Frontiers. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press.
Hong, F. Z. (2006) Qianxin yanjiu yongyu shijian shenhua shuangyu jiaoxue geige, [Research and practice of deepening bilingual education reform]. Paper presented at the Korean Chinese Education Forum (1906?2006), Yanbian University, China, 17?19 August.
Hopkins, A. G. (2002) Globalization in World History. London: Pimlico.
Hornberger, N. (2002) Multilingual language policies and the continua of biliteracy: An ecological approach. Language Policy 1 (1): 27?51. doi:10.1023/A:1014548611951
Hurh, W. M. (1998) The Korean Americans. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Iredale, R., Bilik, N., Su, W., Guo, F. and Hoy, C. (2001) Contemporary Minority Migration, Education and Ethnicity in China. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
Jiang, Y. D. (2006) Chaoxian zu zhongxiao xue shuangyu jiaoyu yanjiu, [Investigation into Korean bilingual primary and secondary education]. Paper presented at the Korean Chinese Education Forum (1906?2006), Yanbian University, China, 17?19 August.
Jin, Y. H. (2006) Kaichuang zhiliang jia tese de yanbian chaoxian zu jiaoyu fazhan zhilu: Yanbian zhou chaoxian zu jiaoyu fazhan qushi yanjiu, [Establishing the development of Yanbian Korean education with quality and characterization: Research on Yanbian Korean education development]. Paper presented at the Korean Chinese Education Forum (1906?2006), Yanbian University, China, 17?19 August.
Jin, X. M. and Piao M. H. (2006) Jiaqiang ?shuangyu’ jiaoxue cujin minzu jiaoyu fazhan, [Improving bilingual education and accelerating education development]. Paper presented at the Korean Chinese Education Forum (1906?2006), Yanbian University, China, 17?19 August.
Johnson, R. K. and Swain M. (eds) (1997) Immersion Education: International Perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kim, S. J. (2003) The economic status and role of ethnic Koreans in China. In C. F. Bergsten and I, Choi (eds) The Korean Diaspora in the World Economy, 101?127. Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics.
Ku, H. B., Chan, K. W. and Sandhu, K. K. (2005) Education of South Asian Ethnic Minority Groups in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Centre for Social Policy Studies, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University.
Lee, C. J. (1986) China's Korean Minority: The Politics of Ethnic Education. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Lee, M. S. (2006) Becoming Multilingual: A Study of South Asian Students in a Hong Kong Secondary School, unpublished MA dissertation. The University of Hong Kong.
Lin, J. (1997) Policies and practices of bilingual education for the minorities in China. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 18 (3): 193?205. doi:10.1080/ 01434639708666314
Lin, Y. (2008) Cultural Exclusion in China: State Education, Social Mobility and Cultural Difference. London; New York: Routledge.
Loper, K. (2004) Race and Ethnicity: A Study of Ethnic Minorities in Hong Kong Education System. Hong Kong: Centre for Comparative and Public Law, The University of Hong Kong.
Losey, K. M. (1995) Gender and ethnicity as factors in the development of verbal skills in bilingual Mexican American women. TESOL Quarterly 29 (4): 635?661. doi:10.2307/ 3588167
Ma, C. H. (2004) Language Practice and Identity of Korean-Chinese Bilinguals in Yanji, PhD dissertation. Michigan State University.
Ma, R. (2003) Zhongguo ge zuqun zhijian de jiegou xing chayi [The structural disparities between China’s ethnic groups]. Shehui kexue zhanxian 4: 174?185.
Ma, X. L. (1953) Minzu zhengce wenxian huibian [Collections of China’s minority policy]. Beijing: Renmin chubanshe.
Mackerras, C. (1994) China’s Minorities: Integration and Modernization in the Twentieth Century. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.
McKay, S. L. and Wong S. L. C. (1996) Multiple discourse, multiple identities: Investment and agency in second-language learning among Chinese adolescent immigrant students. Harvard Educational Review 66 (3): 577?608.
Ming Pao. (2006) Shegong: nanya yi jiazhang yu yuyan wenti xuexiao ‘nisi nijian’ que zhiyuan [Social workers: While South Asian parents face language problems, local schools are lack of support with the stereotyped view]. Retrieved 11 December 2006, from http:// hk.news.yahoo.com/060723/12/1qdo5.html.
NBSC (2001) China Statistical Yearbook. Beijing: China Statistical Press.
Norton, B. (2000) Identity and Language Learning: Gender, Ethnicity, and Educational Change. Harlow: Longman/Pearson.
Olivier, B. V. (1993) The Implementation of China’s Nationality Policy in the Northeastern Provinces. San Francisco, CA: Mellen Research University Press.
Park, J. (2009) Leadership of Recognition: A Philosophical Study. Saarbrücken: VDM Verlag Dr Müller.
Piao, C. Y. (1990) The history of Koreans in China and the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture. In D. S. Suh and E. J. Shultz (eds) Koreans in China. Hawaii: The Center for Korean Studies, University of Hawaii.
Piao, W. Y. (2006) 21shiji zhishi jingji shidai chaoxian zu jichu jiaoyu de zitai yu keti, [Status quo and issues of Korean basic education in the 21st century knowledge economy]. Paper presented at the Korean Chinese Education Forum (1906-2006), Yanbian University, China, 17?19 August.
Postiglione, G. A. (1999) Introduction: State schooling and ethnicity in China. In G. A. Postiglione (ed.) China’s National Minority Education: Culture, Schooling and Development, 3?19. New York: Falmer Press.
Postiglione, G. A. (2000) National minority regions: Studying school discontinuation. In J. Liu, H. A. Ross and D. P. Kelly (eds) The Ethnographic Eye: An Interpretative Study of Education in China, 51?72. New York: Falmer Press.
Sautman, B. (1998) Preferential policies for ethnic minorities in China: The case of Xingjiang. In W. Safran (ed.) Nationalism and Ethnoregional Identities in China, 86?118. London: Frank Cass.
Schumann, J. (1986) Research on the acculturation model for second language acquisition. Journal of Multilingual and Muticultural Development 7 (5): 397?392. doi:10.1080/0143 4632.1986.9994254
Seeberg, V. (2001) Rhetoric and Reality of Mass Education in Mao’s China. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press.
Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (2000) Linguistic Genocide in Education – Or Worldwide Diversity and Human Rights? Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Sun, H. K., Hu, Z. Y. and Huang X. (2007) Zhongguo de yuyan [The languages of China]. Beijing: The Commercial Press.
Taylor, C. and Gutmann, A. (1994) Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of Recognition. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Thomas, W. P. and Collier, V. (1997) School Effectiveness for Language Minority Students. Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education.
Tsung, T. H. (1999) Minorities in China: Language Policy and Education. Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Sydney.
Tsung, L. T. H., Shum, M. S. K. and Ki, W. W. (2008) Teaching Chinese to South Asian Students in Hong Kong: Policies and Issues. Paper presented at the Conference on Minority Language Education in China: Issues and Perspectives, The University of Hong Kong, 19 April.
Zhang, T. L., and Huang, R. Q. (1996) Zhongguo shaoshu minzu renkou diaocha yanjiu, [Demographic studies on China’s minority nationalities]. Beijing: Higher Education Press.
Zhou, M. L. (2000) Language attitudes of two contrasting ethnic minority nationalities in China: The ‘model’ Koreans and the ‘rebellious’ Tibetans. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 146: 1?20. doi:10.1515/ijsl.2000.146.1
Zuengler, J. (1989) Identity and IL development and use. Applied Linguistics 10 (1): 80?96. doi:10.1093/applin/10.1.80
Published
2011-07-14
Issue
Section
Articles
How to Cite
Gao, F., Park, J., Ki, W., & Tsung, L. (2011). Teaching Chinese as a Second Language in China – The Cases of South Asians and Ethnic Koreans. Linguistics and the Human Sciences, 4(3), 265-288. https://doi.org/10.1558/lhs.v4i3.265
