Selecting next speaker in the second language classroom
How to find a willing next speaker in planned activities
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1558/japl.v5i1.55Keywords:
conversation analysis, classroom interaction, second language pedagogy, turn-taking organization, planning-in-interactionAbstract
This article analyses how second language teachers and students interactionally negotiate turn-allocation in the classroom. Relying on Conversation Analysis (CA), I analyse how teachers find and select a next speaker (i.e. a student) in what Gourlay (2005) describes as checking episodes, i.e., ‘episodes structured around the outcomes of previously enacted activities, in which teacher and students go through the outcomes of activities in whole-class mode’ (Gourlay 2005: 407). The article describes how this is done on the basis of detailed interactional work between teacher and students. The article thus describes a specific social practice in the second language classroom and the intrinsic relation between the classroom organization and the emerging social practices that are made relevant through the unfolding interaction.
References
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Duranti, A. (1993). Truth and intentionality: An ethnographic critique. Cultural Anthropology 8 (2): 214–245. doi:10.1525/can.1993.8.2.02a00050
Egbert, M. (1997). Schisming: The transformation from a single conversation to multiple conversations. Research on Language and Social Interaction 30 (1): 1–51. doi:10.1207/ s15327973rlsi3001_1
Emanuelsson, J. and Sahlström, F. (2008). The price of participation – Teacher control versus student participation in classroom interaction. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research 52 (2): 205–223. doi:10.1080/00313830801915853
Firth, A. and Wagner, J. (1997). On discourse, communication and (some) fundamental concepts in SLA research. The Modern Language Journal 81 (3): 285–300. doi:10.2307/329302
Firth, A. and Wagner, J. (2007). Second/foreign language learning as a social accomplishment: Elaborations on a reconceptualized SLA. The Modern Language Journal 91 (5): 800–819.
Garfinkel, H. (1967). Studies in Ethnomethodology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Goffman, E. (1963). Behavior in Public Places: Notes on the Social Organization of Gatherings. New York: The Free Press.
Goffman, E. (1981). Footing. In E. Goffman Forms of Talk, 124–159. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Goodwin, C. (1980). Restarts, pauses, and the achievement of a state of mutual gaze at turnbeginning. Sociological Inquiry 50 (3–4): 272–302. doi:10.1111/j.1475-682X.1980.tb00023.x
Goodwin, C. (1981). Conversational Organization: Interaction Between Speakers and Hearers. New York: Academic Press.
Goodwin, C. (2000a). Action and embodiment within situated human interaction. Journal of Pragmatics 32 (10): 1489–1522. doi:10.1016/S0378-2166(99)00096-X
Goodwin, C. (2000b). Practices of color classification. Mind, Culture and Activity 7 (1–2): 19–36. doi:10.1207/S15327884MCA0701&2_03
Goodwin, C. (2003). The body in action. In J. Coupland and R. Gwyn (eds) Discourse, the Body, and Identity, 19–42. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Gourlay, L. (2005). OK, who’s got number one? Permeable triadic dialogue, covert participation and the co-construction of checking episodes. Language Teaching Research 9 (4): 403–422. doi:10.1191/1362168805lr175oa
Heath, C. (1984). Talk and recipiency: Sequential organization in speech and body movement. In J. M. Atkinson and J. Heritage (eds) Structures of Social Action. Studies in Conversation Analysis, 247–265. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Heath, C. (1986). Body Movement and Speech in Medical Interaction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511628221
Heath, C. and Luff, P. (1992). Collaboration and control: Crisis management and multimedia technology in London Underground Line Control Rooms. Computer Supported Cooperative Work 1 (1): 24–48. doi:10.1007/BF00752451
Heidtmann, D. and Föh, M.-J. (2007). Verbale abstinenz als form interaktiver beteiligung. In R. Schmitt (ed.) Koordination: Analysen zur Multimodalen Interaktion, 263–292. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag.
Hellermann, J. (2007). The development of practices for action in classroom dyadic interaction: Focus in task openings. The Modern Language Journal 91 (1): 83–96. doi:10.1111/j.1540- 4781.2007.00503.x
Hellermann, J. (2008). Social Actions for Classroom Language Learning. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Hellermann, J. and Cole, E. (2009). Practices for social interaction in language learning classrooms: Disengagement from dyadic task interaction. Applied Linguistics 30: 186– 215. doi:10.1093/applin/amn032
Hougaard, G. R. (2009). Legitimate peripheral participation as a framework for conversation analytic work in second language learning. Forum: Qualitative Social Research 10 (2): Art. 4.
Hutchby, I. and Wooffitt, R. (1998). Conversation Analysis. Principles, Practices and Applications. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Jensen, L. (2001). Planning lessons. In M. Celce-Murcia (ed.) Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language, 403–408. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.
Johnson, K. E. (1995). Understanding Communication in Second Language Classrooms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jones, R. and Thornborrow, J. (2004). Floors, talk and the organization of classroom activities. Language in Society 33 (3): 399–423. doi:10.1017/S0047404504043040
Jones, S. E. and Zimmerman, D. H. (2003). A child’s point and the achievement of intentionality. Gesture 3 (2): 155–185. doi:10.1075/gest.3.2.03jon
Käänta, L. (2010). Teacher Turn-Allocation and Repair Practices in Classroom Interaction: A Multisemiotic Perspective. Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä.
Kasper, G. (2009). Locating cognition in second language interaction and learning: Inside the skull or in public view? International Review of Applied Linguistics 47 (1): 11–36. doi:10.1515/iral.2009.002
Koole, T. (2007). Parallel activities in the classroom. Language and Education 21 (6): 487– 501.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (2000). Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Lörscher, W. (1982). Konversationanalyse und Fremdsprachenunterricht. Neusprachliche Mitteilungen auf Wissenschaft und Praxis 35 (4): 211–218.
Markee, N. (2000). Conversation Analysis. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Markee, N. (2005). The organization of off-task talk in Second Language classrooms. In K. Richards and P. Seedhouse (eds) Applying Conversation Analysis, 187–213. London: Palgrave.
Markee, N. (2008). Towards a learning behavior tracking methodology for CA-for-SLA. Applied Linguistics 29 (3): 404–427. doi:10.1093/applin/amm052
Markee, N. and Kasper, G. (2004). Classroom talks: An introduction. The Modern Language Journal 88 (4): 491–500. doi:10.1111/j.0026-7902.2004.t01-14-.x
McHoul, A. (1978). The organization of turns at formal talk in the classroom. Language in Society 7: 183–213. doi:10.1017/S0047404500005522
Mondada, L. (2006). Participants’ online analysis and multimodal practices: Projecting the end of the turn and the closing of the sequence. Discourse Studies 8 (1): 117–129. doi:10.1177/1461445606059561
Mondada, L. (2007). Multimodal resources for turn-taking: Pointing and the emergence of possible next speakers. Discourse Studies 9 (2): 194–225. doi:10.1177/1461445607075346
Mondada, L. and Pekarek Doehler, S. (2004). Second language acquisition as situated practice: Task accomplishment in the French second language classroom. The Modern Language Journal 88 (4): 501–518. doi:10.1111/j.0026-7902.2004.t01-15-.x
Mori, J. (2002). Task design, plan, and development of talk-in-interaction: An analysis of a small group activity in a Japanese language classroom. Applied Linguistics 23 (3): 323– 347. doi:10.1093/applin/23.3.323
Mori, J. (2004). Negotiating sequential boundaries and learning opportunities: A case from a Japanese language classroom. The Modern Language Journal 88 (4): 536–550. doi:10.1111/j.0026-7902.2004.t01-17-.x
Mori, J. and Hasegawa, A. (2009). Doing being a foreign language learner in a classroom: Embodiment of cognitive states as social events. International Review of Applied Linguistics 47 (1): 65–94. doi:10.1515/iral.2009.004
Mori, J. and Hayashi, M. (2006). The achievement of intersubjectivity through embodied completions: A study of interactions between first and second language speakers. Applied Linguistics 27 (2): 195–219. doi:10.1093/applin/aml014
Mortensen, K. (2008). Instructions and Participation in the Second Language Classroom. Unpublished PhD Dissertation. University of Southern Denmark, Odense.
Mortensen, K. (2009). Establishing recipiency in pre-beginning position in the second language Classroom. Discourse Processes 46(5): 491–515. doi:10.1080/01638530902959463
Nunan, D. (1989). Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge Language Teaching Library.
Ohta, A. S. (2001). Second Language Acquisition Processes In The Classroom: Learning Japanese. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Paoletti, I. and Fele, G. (2004). Order and disorder in the classroom. Journal of Pragmatics 14 (1): 69–85.
Pekarek Doehler, S. (2010). Conceptual changes and methodological challenges: On language and learning from a conversation analytic perspective on SLA. In P.
Seedhouse, C. Jenks and S. Walsh (eds) Conceptualising Learning in Applied Linguistics, 105–120. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Richards, J. C. and Rodgers, T. S. (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511667305
Robinson, J. D. (1998). Getting down to business: Talk, gaze, and body orientation during openings of doctor-patient consultations. Human Communication Research 25 (1): 97– 123. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.1998.tb00438.x
Robinson, P. (2001). Task complexity, cognitive resources and second language syllabus design: A triadic theory of task influences on SLA. In P. Robinson (ed.) Cognition and Second Language Instruction, 285-317. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Sacks, H. (2004). An initial characterization of the organization of speaker turn-taking in conversation. In G. Lerner (ed.) Conversation Analysis: Studies From the First Generation, 35–42. Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins Publishing.
Sacks, H., Schegloff, E. A. and Jefferson, G. (1974). A simplest systematics for the organization of turn-taking for conversation. Language 50 (4): 696–735. doi:10.2307/412243
Sahlström, F. (1999). Up the Hill Backwards. Uppsala: Uppsala Studies in Education.
Sahlström, F. (2002). The interactional organization of hand raising in classroom interaction. Journal of Classroom Interaction 37 (2): 47–57.
Schegloff, E. A. (1968). Sequencing in conversational openings. American Anthropologist 70 (6): 1075–1095. doi:10.1525/aa.1968.70.6.02a00030
Schegloff, E. A. (1996). Turn organization: One intersection of grammar and interaction. In E. Ochs, E. A. Schegloff and S. A. Thompson (eds) Interaction and Grammar, 52–133. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Schegloff, E. A. (2007). Sequence Organization in Interaction: A Primer in Conversation Analysis (Vol. 1). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511791208
Schegloff, E. A. and Sacks, H. (1973). Opening up closings. Semiotica 8 (4): 289–327. doi:10.1515/semi.1973.8.4.289
Seedhouse, P. (2004). The Interactional Architecture of the Language Classroom: A Conversation Analysis Perspective. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
Skehan, P. (2003). Task-based instruction. Language Teaching 36: 1–14. doi:10.1017/ S026144480200188X
Streeck, J. and Hartge, U. (1992). Previews: Gestures at the transition place. In P. Auer and A. D. Luzio (eds) The Contextualization of Language, 135–157. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Suchman, L. A. (2007). Human-Machine Reconfigurations: Plans and Situated Actions (2nd edn). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Szymanski, M. H. (1999). Re-engaging and dis-engaging talk in activity. Language in Society 28 (1): 1–23. doi:10.1017/S0047404599001013
Varonesi, D. (2007). Movimento nello spazio, prossemica e risorse interazionali: Un’analisi preliminare del rapporto tra modalià in contesti didattici accademici. VALS/ASLA 85 (3): 107–129.
Duranti, A. (1993). Truth and intentionality: An ethnographic critique. Cultural Anthropology 8 (2): 214–245. doi:10.1525/can.1993.8.2.02a00050
Egbert, M. (1997). Schisming: The transformation from a single conversation to multiple conversations. Research on Language and Social Interaction 30 (1): 1–51. doi:10.1207/ s15327973rlsi3001_1
Emanuelsson, J. and Sahlström, F. (2008). The price of participation – Teacher control versus student participation in classroom interaction. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research 52 (2): 205–223. doi:10.1080/00313830801915853
Firth, A. and Wagner, J. (1997). On discourse, communication and (some) fundamental concepts in SLA research. The Modern Language Journal 81 (3): 285–300. doi:10.2307/329302
Firth, A. and Wagner, J. (2007). Second/foreign language learning as a social accomplishment: Elaborations on a reconceptualized SLA. The Modern Language Journal 91 (5): 800–819.
Garfinkel, H. (1967). Studies in Ethnomethodology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Goffman, E. (1963). Behavior in Public Places: Notes on the Social Organization of Gatherings. New York: The Free Press.
Goffman, E. (1981). Footing. In E. Goffman Forms of Talk, 124–159. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Goodwin, C. (1980). Restarts, pauses, and the achievement of a state of mutual gaze at turnbeginning. Sociological Inquiry 50 (3–4): 272–302. doi:10.1111/j.1475-682X.1980.tb00023.x
Goodwin, C. (1981). Conversational Organization: Interaction Between Speakers and Hearers. New York: Academic Press.
Goodwin, C. (2000a). Action and embodiment within situated human interaction. Journal of Pragmatics 32 (10): 1489–1522. doi:10.1016/S0378-2166(99)00096-X
Goodwin, C. (2000b). Practices of color classification. Mind, Culture and Activity 7 (1–2): 19–36. doi:10.1207/S15327884MCA0701&2_03
Goodwin, C. (2003). The body in action. In J. Coupland and R. Gwyn (eds) Discourse, the Body, and Identity, 19–42. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Gourlay, L. (2005). OK, who’s got number one? Permeable triadic dialogue, covert participation and the co-construction of checking episodes. Language Teaching Research 9 (4): 403–422. doi:10.1191/1362168805lr175oa
Heath, C. (1984). Talk and recipiency: Sequential organization in speech and body movement. In J. M. Atkinson and J. Heritage (eds) Structures of Social Action. Studies in Conversation Analysis, 247–265. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Heath, C. (1986). Body Movement and Speech in Medical Interaction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511628221
Heath, C. and Luff, P. (1992). Collaboration and control: Crisis management and multimedia technology in London Underground Line Control Rooms. Computer Supported Cooperative Work 1 (1): 24–48. doi:10.1007/BF00752451
Heidtmann, D. and Föh, M.-J. (2007). Verbale abstinenz als form interaktiver beteiligung. In R. Schmitt (ed.) Koordination: Analysen zur Multimodalen Interaktion, 263–292. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag.
Hellermann, J. (2007). The development of practices for action in classroom dyadic interaction: Focus in task openings. The Modern Language Journal 91 (1): 83–96. doi:10.1111/j.1540- 4781.2007.00503.x
Hellermann, J. (2008). Social Actions for Classroom Language Learning. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Hellermann, J. and Cole, E. (2009). Practices for social interaction in language learning classrooms: Disengagement from dyadic task interaction. Applied Linguistics 30: 186– 215. doi:10.1093/applin/amn032
Hougaard, G. R. (2009). Legitimate peripheral participation as a framework for conversation analytic work in second language learning. Forum: Qualitative Social Research 10 (2): Art. 4.
Hutchby, I. and Wooffitt, R. (1998). Conversation Analysis. Principles, Practices and Applications. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Jensen, L. (2001). Planning lessons. In M. Celce-Murcia (ed.) Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language, 403–408. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.
Johnson, K. E. (1995). Understanding Communication in Second Language Classrooms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jones, R. and Thornborrow, J. (2004). Floors, talk and the organization of classroom activities. Language in Society 33 (3): 399–423. doi:10.1017/S0047404504043040
Jones, S. E. and Zimmerman, D. H. (2003). A child’s point and the achievement of intentionality. Gesture 3 (2): 155–185. doi:10.1075/gest.3.2.03jon
Käänta, L. (2010). Teacher Turn-Allocation and Repair Practices in Classroom Interaction: A Multisemiotic Perspective. Unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä.
Kasper, G. (2009). Locating cognition in second language interaction and learning: Inside the skull or in public view? International Review of Applied Linguistics 47 (1): 11–36. doi:10.1515/iral.2009.002
Koole, T. (2007). Parallel activities in the classroom. Language and Education 21 (6): 487– 501.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (2000). Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Lörscher, W. (1982). Konversationanalyse und Fremdsprachenunterricht. Neusprachliche Mitteilungen auf Wissenschaft und Praxis 35 (4): 211–218.
Markee, N. (2000). Conversation Analysis. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Markee, N. (2005). The organization of off-task talk in Second Language classrooms. In K. Richards and P. Seedhouse (eds) Applying Conversation Analysis, 187–213. London: Palgrave.
Markee, N. (2008). Towards a learning behavior tracking methodology for CA-for-SLA. Applied Linguistics 29 (3): 404–427. doi:10.1093/applin/amm052
Markee, N. and Kasper, G. (2004). Classroom talks: An introduction. The Modern Language Journal 88 (4): 491–500. doi:10.1111/j.0026-7902.2004.t01-14-.x
McHoul, A. (1978). The organization of turns at formal talk in the classroom. Language in Society 7: 183–213. doi:10.1017/S0047404500005522
Mondada, L. (2006). Participants’ online analysis and multimodal practices: Projecting the end of the turn and the closing of the sequence. Discourse Studies 8 (1): 117–129. doi:10.1177/1461445606059561
Mondada, L. (2007). Multimodal resources for turn-taking: Pointing and the emergence of possible next speakers. Discourse Studies 9 (2): 194–225. doi:10.1177/1461445607075346
Mondada, L. and Pekarek Doehler, S. (2004). Second language acquisition as situated practice: Task accomplishment in the French second language classroom. The Modern Language Journal 88 (4): 501–518. doi:10.1111/j.0026-7902.2004.t01-15-.x
Mori, J. (2002). Task design, plan, and development of talk-in-interaction: An analysis of a small group activity in a Japanese language classroom. Applied Linguistics 23 (3): 323– 347. doi:10.1093/applin/23.3.323
Mori, J. (2004). Negotiating sequential boundaries and learning opportunities: A case from a Japanese language classroom. The Modern Language Journal 88 (4): 536–550. doi:10.1111/j.0026-7902.2004.t01-17-.x
Mori, J. and Hasegawa, A. (2009). Doing being a foreign language learner in a classroom: Embodiment of cognitive states as social events. International Review of Applied Linguistics 47 (1): 65–94. doi:10.1515/iral.2009.004
Mori, J. and Hayashi, M. (2006). The achievement of intersubjectivity through embodied completions: A study of interactions between first and second language speakers. Applied Linguistics 27 (2): 195–219. doi:10.1093/applin/aml014
Mortensen, K. (2008). Instructions and Participation in the Second Language Classroom. Unpublished PhD Dissertation. University of Southern Denmark, Odense.
Mortensen, K. (2009). Establishing recipiency in pre-beginning position in the second language Classroom. Discourse Processes 46(5): 491–515. doi:10.1080/01638530902959463
Nunan, D. (1989). Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge Language Teaching Library.
Ohta, A. S. (2001). Second Language Acquisition Processes In The Classroom: Learning Japanese. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Paoletti, I. and Fele, G. (2004). Order and disorder in the classroom. Journal of Pragmatics 14 (1): 69–85.
Pekarek Doehler, S. (2010). Conceptual changes and methodological challenges: On language and learning from a conversation analytic perspective on SLA. In P.
Seedhouse, C. Jenks and S. Walsh (eds) Conceptualising Learning in Applied Linguistics, 105–120. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Richards, J. C. and Rodgers, T. S. (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511667305
Robinson, J. D. (1998). Getting down to business: Talk, gaze, and body orientation during openings of doctor-patient consultations. Human Communication Research 25 (1): 97– 123. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.1998.tb00438.x
Robinson, P. (2001). Task complexity, cognitive resources and second language syllabus design: A triadic theory of task influences on SLA. In P. Robinson (ed.) Cognition and Second Language Instruction, 285-317. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Sacks, H. (2004). An initial characterization of the organization of speaker turn-taking in conversation. In G. Lerner (ed.) Conversation Analysis: Studies From the First Generation, 35–42. Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins Publishing.
Sacks, H., Schegloff, E. A. and Jefferson, G. (1974). A simplest systematics for the organization of turn-taking for conversation. Language 50 (4): 696–735. doi:10.2307/412243
Sahlström, F. (1999). Up the Hill Backwards. Uppsala: Uppsala Studies in Education.
Sahlström, F. (2002). The interactional organization of hand raising in classroom interaction. Journal of Classroom Interaction 37 (2): 47–57.
Schegloff, E. A. (1968). Sequencing in conversational openings. American Anthropologist 70 (6): 1075–1095. doi:10.1525/aa.1968.70.6.02a00030
Schegloff, E. A. (1996). Turn organization: One intersection of grammar and interaction. In E. Ochs, E. A. Schegloff and S. A. Thompson (eds) Interaction and Grammar, 52–133. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Schegloff, E. A. (2007). Sequence Organization in Interaction: A Primer in Conversation Analysis (Vol. 1). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511791208
Schegloff, E. A. and Sacks, H. (1973). Opening up closings. Semiotica 8 (4): 289–327. doi:10.1515/semi.1973.8.4.289
Seedhouse, P. (2004). The Interactional Architecture of the Language Classroom: A Conversation Analysis Perspective. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
Skehan, P. (2003). Task-based instruction. Language Teaching 36: 1–14. doi:10.1017/ S026144480200188X
Streeck, J. and Hartge, U. (1992). Previews: Gestures at the transition place. In P. Auer and A. D. Luzio (eds) The Contextualization of Language, 135–157. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Suchman, L. A. (2007). Human-Machine Reconfigurations: Plans and Situated Actions (2nd edn). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Szymanski, M. H. (1999). Re-engaging and dis-engaging talk in activity. Language in Society 28 (1): 1–23. doi:10.1017/S0047404599001013
Varonesi, D. (2007). Movimento nello spazio, prossemica e risorse interazionali: Un’analisi preliminare del rapporto tra modalià in contesti didattici accademici. VALS/ASLA 85 (3): 107–129.
Published
2015-09-14
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Equinox Publishing Ltd.
How to Cite
Mortensen, K. (2015). Selecting next speaker in the second language classroom : How to find a willing next speaker in planned activities. Journal of Applied Linguistics and Professional Practice, 5(1), 55-79. https://doi.org/10.1558/japl.v5i1.55
