Dating Early Islamic Sites through Architectural Elements

A Case Study from Central Israel

Authors

  • Hagit Nol University of Hamburg

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.1558/jia.37248

Keywords:

Early Islam, Palestine, Ramla, dating, typology of installations, settlement patterns, Big Data, Pool of Arches

Abstract

The development of the chronology of the Early Islamic period (7th-11th centuries) has largely been based on coins and pottery, but both have pitfalls. In addition to the problem of mobility, both coins and pottery were used for extended periods of time. As a result, the dating of pottery can seldom be refined to less than a 200-300-year range, while coins in Israel are often found in contexts hundreds of years after the intial production of the coin itself. This article explores an alternative method for dating based on construction techniques and installation designs. To that end, this paper analyzes one excavation area in central Israel between Tel-Aviv, Ashdod and Ramla. The data used in the study is from excavations and survey of early Islamic remains. Installation and construction techniques were categorized by type and then ordered chronologically through a common stratigraphy from related sites. The results were mapped to determine possible phases of change at the site, with six phases being established and dated. This analysis led to the re-dating of the Pool of the Arches in Ramla from 172 AH/789 CE to 272 AH/886 CE, which is different from the date that appears on the building inscription. The attempted reconstruction of Ramla involved several scattered sites attributed to the 7th and the 8th centuries which grew into clusters by the 9th century and unified into one main cluster with the White Mosque at its center by the 10th-11th centuries. This dating method chiefly utilizes terminus post quem dates and index fossils to differentiate between the 9th and 10th centuries. This article emphasizes the potential of archaeology as an alternative to written sources in the dating of sites and offers a fresh perspective on the history of this region.

Author Biography

  • Hagit Nol, University of Hamburg

    Hagit Nol has recently defended her PhD dissertation in Hamburg University on settlement patterns during Early Islam in central Israel/historical Palestine. Her new project concentrates on early mosques all over the Islamic world.

References

?Ad, U., A. Golani and O. Segal. 2014. “Tel Azor.” HA-ESI 126: http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/Report_Detail_Eng.aspx?id=12654&mag_id=121.

Ab? ?Ubayd al-Q?sim ibn Sall?m (d. 838). 1989. Kit?b al-Amw?l, edited by M. ?Im?ra. Bayr?t and al-Q?hira: D?r al-Shur?q.

Amitai-Preiss, N. 2010. “The coins.” In Ramla: Final Report on the Excavation North of the White Mosque, edited by O. Gutfeld, 265–285. Qedem 51. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society.

----- 2014. “Two glass weights from the Ribat at Ashdod-Yam.” In Azdud (Ashdod-Yam): An Early Islamic Fortress on the Mediterranean Coast, by Sarah Kate Raphael, 63, 104. British Archaeological Reports International Series 2673. Oxford: Archaeopress.

Ariel, D. T. 2006. “Coins from Mesillot.” ?Atiqot 53: 193–194.

Ariel, D. T. and A. Berman. 2014. “Coins from ?orbat Ma?on.” ?Atiqot 78: 63–72* (English Summary: 164)

Arnon, Y.D. 2008. Caesarea Maritima, the Late Periods (700–1291 CE). British Archaeological Reports International Series 1771. Oxford: Archaeopress.

Avissar, M. 1998. “Lod (A).” Hadashot Arkheologiyot 108: 89–90*.

Avner, R. 2008 “Mosaic pavements from the excavations south of the White Mosque.” Qadmoniot 135: 22–24*.

Avni, G. 2014. The Byzantine-Islamic Transition in Palestine: An Archaeological Approach. Oxford: Oxford University Press.https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199684335.001.0001

----- 2011. “Continuity and change in urban centers of Palestine during the Early Islamic period: The cases of Jerusalem and Ramla.” In Shaping the Middle East: Cities in Transition, edited by K. G. Holum, and H. Lapin, 115–133. Bethesda: University Press of Maryland.

Avni, G., M. Avissar, Y. Baruch and H. Torgë. 2008. “New excavations south of the White Mosque.” HA-ESI 120: http://www.hadashot-ESI.org.il/Report_Detail_Eng.aspx?id=788&mag_id=114.

Ayalon, E., E. Gilboa and T. Shacham. 1988. “A public building of the early Arab period at Tell Qasile.” Israel – People and Land 4(22): 35–52*.

?Azab, A. 2011. “Ramla.” HA-ESI 123: http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/Report_Detail_Eng.aspx?id=1810&mag_id=118.

Al-Bal?dhur?, A?mad b. Ya?y? (d. 892). 1866. Kit?b Fut?h al-buld?n, edited by M. J. de Goeje. Leiden: Brill.

Al-Balaw?, Ab? Mu?ammad ?Abdall?h ibn Mu?ammad al-Mad?n? (the 10th century). 1939. S?rat A?mad ibn ??l?n, edited by M. K. ?Al?. Damascus: Mu?ba?at al-Taraqq?.

Balog, P. 1976. Umayyad, ??bbasid and ??l?nid Glass Weights and Vessel Stamps, Numismatic Studies 13. New York: The American Numismatic Society.

Berman, A. 1995. “Appendix: Coins and seals.” In “The Na?al Sha?aq Site: An early Islamic settlement in the northern ?Arava,” edited by Y. Israel, D. Nahlieli and Y. Ben-Michael. ?Atiqot 26: 1–14* (English summary: 113).

Berman, A. and G. Bijovsky. 2002. “The coins from Nevé Ur.” ?Atiqot 43: 177–183.

Bijovsky, G. 2009. “Coins from the northwestern suburb.” In Paneas IV: The Aqueduct and the Northern Suburb, edited by M. Hartal, 179–183. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority.

Binford, L. R. 1981. “Behavioral archaeology and the ‘Pompeii Premise’.” Journal of Anthropological Research 37(3): 195–208. https://doi.org/10.1086/jar.37.3.3629723

Blair, S. S. 1998. Islamic Inscriptions. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

Bosworth, C. E. 1993. “Mi?r.” Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition, vol. 7: 146. Leiden: Brill.

Bouchenino, A. 2007. “Building remains and industrial installations from the Early Islamic periods at Khirbat Deiran, Rehovot.” ?Atiqot 56: 119–144* (English summary: 84–85).

Chidio?an, N., E. Ayalon and A. Yosef. 1989. “Eretz Israel Museum.” Hadashot Arkheologiyot 93: 64*.

Clermont-Ganneau, C. 1896. Archaeological Researches in Palestine during the Years 1873–1874, Vol. II. Translated by J. Macfarlane. London: Palestine Exploration Fund.

Creswell, K.A.C. 1940. Early Muslim Architecture, Vol. II: Early ?Abb?sids, Umayyads of Cordova, Aghlabids, ??l?nids, and Sam?nids, A.D. 751–905. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

----- 1958. A Short Account of Early Muslim Architecture. Beirut: Librairie du Liban.

Cytryn-Silverman, K. 2008. “Three Maml?k minarets in Ramla.” Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 35: 379–432.

----- 2010. “The ceramic evidence.” In Ramla: Final Report on the Excavations North of the White Mosque, edited by O. Gutfeld, 97–211. Qedem 51. Jerusalem: Isael Exploration Society.

De Vogüé, M., Le Marquis. 1914. “La citerne de Ramleh.” Mémoires de l’institut national de France 39: 163–180. https://doi.org/10.3406/minf.1914.1603

Elad, A. 1991. “Two identical inscriptions from Jund Filas??n from the reign of the ?Abb?sid caliph, al-Muqtadir.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 35(4): 301–360. https://doi.org/10.1163/156852092X00174

Elisha, Y. 2007. “Horbat Harmas.” HA-ESI 119: http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/Report_Detail_Eng.aspx?id=471&mag_id=112.

Farhi, Y. 2007. “A Mamluk coin hoard.” In The Temple Mount Excavations in Jerusalem, 1968–1978, Directed by Benjamin Mazar, Final Report Vol. III: The Byzantine Period, edited by E. Mazar, 93–96. Qedem 46. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Soceity.

Fulford, M. 1996. “Economic hotspots and provincial backwaters: Modelling the Late Roman economy.” In Coin Finds and Coin Use in the Roman World: The Thirteenth Oxford Symposium on Coinage and Monetary History, edited by C. E. King and D. G. Wigg, 154–155. Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag.

Gattiglia, G. 2015. “Think big about data: Archaeology and the big data challenge.” Archäologische Informationen 38: 113–124.

Genequand, D. 2012. Les établissements des élites omeyyades en Palmyrène et au Proche-Orient, Bibliothèque archéologique et historique 200. Beirut: Institut français du Proche-Orient.

Glick, D. and D. Gamil. 1997. “Ramla.” Hadashot Arkheologiyot 107: 77–78*.

Gorzalczany, A. 2014. “Industry and urban planning in the city of Ramla and its surroundings: Economy and technology in Palestine during the Early Islamic Period (ca 634–1099 CE).” Unpublished PhD thesis, Tel Aviv University.

Gorzalczany, A. and U. ?Ad. 2010. “Ramla (South).” HA-ESI 122: http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/Report_Detail_Eng.aspx?id=1418&mag_id=117.

Gorzalczany, A. and E. Jakoel. 2013. “Bet Dagan.” HA-ESI 125: http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/Report_Detail_Eng.aspx?id=5419&mag_id=120.

Gorzalczany, A. and J. Marcus. 2010. “Ramla (South).” HA-ESI 122: http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/Report_Detail_Eng.aspx?id=1335&mag_id=117.

Grabar, O. 1957. The Coinage of the ??l?nids. Numismatic Notes and Monographs 139. New York: American Numismatic Society.

Grafman, R. and M. Rosen-Ayalon. 1999. “The two great Syrian Umayyad mosques: Jerusalem and Damascus.” Muqarnas 16: 1–15. https://doi.org/10.2307/1523262

Grohmann, A. 1957. “The origin and early development of Floriated K?fic.” Ars Orientalis 2: 183–213.

----- 1963. Arabic Papyri from ?irbet El-Mird, Bibliothéque du Muséon 52. Louvain: Publications Universitaires.

Gudovitch, S. 2010. “Ramla.” HA-ESI 122: http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/Report_Detail_Eng.aspx?id=1563&mag_id=117.

Gutfeld, O. 1999. “Ramla (A).” HA-ESI 109: 99–101* (English summary:65).

----- 2010. Ramla: Final Report on the Excavations North of the White Mosque. Qedem 51. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society.

Hadad, S. and E. Khamis. 1998. “Inscribed pottery lamps from the Early Islamic period at Beth Shean.” Israel Exploration Journal 48: 66–76.

Haddad, E. 2013a. “Remains of a public building from the Byzantine period and a farmhouse from the Early Islamic period north of Tel Lod.” ?Atiqot 76: 23–39* (English summary: 219–220).

----- 2013b. “Rishon Le-Ziyyon.” HA-ESI 125: http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/report_detail_eng.aspx?id=4372&mag_id=120.

Haro Peralta, J. and P. Verkinderen. 2016. “Jedli: A textual analysis toolbox for digitized Arabic texts.” Early Islamic Empire Working Paper Series 2, https://www.islamic-empire.uni-hamburg.de/en/documents/working-paper-series/wp-jedli.pdf

Heidemann, S. 2003. “Die Fundmünzen von ?ar?b Sayy?r im Verhältnis zur lokalen Geschichte.” Mitteilungen der Deutchen Orient-Gesellschaft zu Berlin 135: 103–112.

----- 2010. “Numismatics.” In Cambridge New History of Islam. Vol. 1: The Formation of the Islamic World, Sixth to Eleventh Centuries, edited by C. Robinson, 648–663. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521838238.018

Hodder, I. 1991 [1986]. Reading the Past. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hodder, I. and S. Hutson. 2003. Reading the Past: Current Approaches to Interpretation in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511814211

Hoyland, R. G. 2001 [1997]. Seeing Islam as Others Saw It: A Survey and Evaluation of Christian, Jewish and Zoroastrian Writings on Early Islam, Studies in Late Antiquity and Early Islam 13. Second ed. Princeton, NJ: The Darwin Press.

Ibn ?As?kir (d. 1176). 1995. Ta?r?kh Mad?nat Dimashq, Vol. 20, edited by ?Umar ibn Ghrama al-?Amarw?. Bayr?t: D?r al-Fikr.

Ibn al-Faq?h (d. after 903). 1885. Mukhta?ar kit?b al-buld?n, edited by M. J. de Goeje. Leiden: Brill.

Ilisch, L. 1993. Sylloge Numorum Arabicorum Tübingen. Palästina IVa Bil?d aš-Š?m, Vol. I. Tübingen: Ernst Wasmuth Verlag.

Al-Jahshiy?r? (d. 942). 1938. Kit?b al-Wuzar?? wa-l-kutt?b, edited by M. al-Saqq?, I. al-Iby?r? and ?A.?. Shalab?. al-Q?hira: Ma?ba?at Mu??af? al-B?b? al-?alab?.

Jakoel, E. 2010. “Tel Aviv, Ramat Aviv.” HA-ESI 122: http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/Report_Detail_Eng.aspx?id=1523&mag_id=117.

Jawda, ?.A.D. 1986. Mad?nat al-Ramla mundhu nash??ih? ?att? ??m 492 H/ 1099 M. Beirut: D?r ?Amm?r.

Kanias, T. and R. Toueg. 2012. “Ramla.” HA-ESI 124: http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/report_detail_eng.aspx?id=2104&mag_id=119.

Kaplan, J. 1959. “Excavations at the White Mosque in Ramla.” ?Atiqot English Series 2: 106–115.

King, G.R.D. 1986. The Historical Mosques of Saudi Arabia. New York: Longman.

Kletter, R. 2009. “Ramla, Ha-Palmah Street.” HA-ESI 121: http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/Report_Detail_Eng.aspx?id=1168&mag_id=115.

Kogan-Zehavi, E. 2004. “Ramla.” HA-ESI 116: http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/Report_Detail_Eng.aspx?id=27&mag_id=108.

Kogan-Zehavi, E. and S. Hadad. 2013. “A building and an olive press from the Byzantine-Abbasid periods at Khirbat el-Thahiriya.” ?Atiqot 71: 84–112 (Hebrew).

Kohn-Tavor, A. 2008. “Horvat Zerifin.” HA-ESI 120: http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/report_detail_eng.aspx?id=814&mag_id=114.

Kool, R. 2007. “The coins from Khirbat Deiran, Rehovot.” ?Atiqot 56: 65–68*.

----- 2012. “The coins from Khirbat el-Thahiriya.” ?Atiqot 71: 73–77*.

----- 2013. “The coins from the excavation at Lod.” ?Atiqot 76: 41–43*.

----- 2014. “Coins.” In ?Ad Halom: A Saqiye installation from the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods at the foot of Tel-Ashdod, by Y. Baumgarten. HA-ESI 126 (Hebrew, English summary). http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/Report_Detail_Eng.aspx?id=14719&mag_id=121

LaMotta, V. M. and M. B. Schiffer. 1999. “Formation processes of house floor assemblages.” In The Archaeology of Household Activities, edited by P. M. Allison, 19–29. London: Routledge.

Lecker, M. 1989. “The estates of ?Amr b. al-??? in Palestine: Notes on a new Negev Arabic inscription.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 52(1): 24–37. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0041977X00023041

Lenzen, C. J. 1995. “From public to private space: Changes in the urban plan of Bayt R?s/Capitolias.” Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan 5: 235–239.

Lewcock, R. G., G. Smith and R. B. Serjeant. 1983. “The architectural history and description of ?an??? Mosques: The Great Mosque.” In ?an???: An Arabian Islamic City, edited by R. B. Serjeant and R. Lewcock, 323–350. London: The World of Islam Festival Trust.

Luz, N. 1997. “The construction of an Islamic city in Palestine: The case of Umayyad al-Ramla.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 7: 27–54. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1356186300008300

----- 2017. “Lod and Ramla and not Ramlod: On a geographic anomaly and the Longue Dureé of urban history.” In Lod “Diospolis—City of God”: Collected Papers on the History and Archaeology of Lod, vol. III, edited by A. Shavit,
T. Da?adli and Y. Gadot, 21–41*. Lod: Tagliyot.

Al-Maqdis?, Mu?ammad ibn A?mad (d. after 990). 1906. A?san al-taq?s?m f ? ma ?rifat al-aq?l?m, Description Imperii Moslemici, edited by M.J. De Goeje. 2nd edition, reprint 1947. Leiden: Brill.

Marçais, G. 1954. L’architecture musulmane d’occident: Tunisie, Algérie, Maroc, Espagne, Sicile. Paris: Arts et métiers graphiques.

Masarwa, D. 2013. “Lod.” HA-ESI 125: http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/Report_Detail_Eng.aspx?id=2203&mag_id=120.

Milwright, M. 2010. An Introduction to Islamic Archaeology. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. https://doi.org/10.3366/edinburgh/9780748623105.001.0001

Nicol, N. D. 2007. Sylloge of Islamic Coins in the Ashmolean. Volume 6: The Egyptian Dynasties. Oxford: Ashmolean Museum.

Nol, H. 2018. “Landscaping Early Islam: The history of settlement in central Israel during the 7th–11th centuries through archaeology, terminology and narratives.” Unpublished PhD thesis, Universität Hamburg.

Porat, P. 2006. “A Late Byzantine–Early Islamic period farmhouse at Mesillot in the Bet She?an Valley.” ?Atiqot 53: 181–192.

Porath, Y. 2002. “Hydraulic plaster in aqueducts as a chronological indicator.” In The Aqueducts of Israel, Journal of Roman Archaeology, Supplementary Series 46, edited by D. Amit, J. Patrich and Y. Hirschfeld, 25–36. Dortsmouth: Journal of Roman archaeology.

Roll, I. and E. Ayalon. 1981. “Two large wine presses in the red soil regions of Israel.” Palestine Exploration Quarterly 113: 111–125. https://doi.org/10.1080/00310328.1981.11910757

Rosen, S. 2006. “The tyranny of texts: A rebellion against the primacy of written documents in defining archaeological agendas.” In “I will Speak the Riddles of Ancient Times”: Archaeological and Historical Studies in Honor of Amihai Mazar, vol. 2, edited by A. M. Maeir and P. de Miroschedji, 879–893. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns.

Rosen-Ayalon, M. 2006. “The White Mosque of Ramla: Retracing its history.” Israel Exploration Journal 56(1): 67–83.

Safar, F. 1945. W?sit, the Sixth Season Excavation. Le Caire: l’Institut français d’arch?eologie orientale.

Sauvaget, J. 1941. “Les inscriptions arabes de la mosquée de Bosra.” Syria 22: 53–65. https://doi.org/10.3406/syria.1941.4256

Scanlon, G. T. 1970. “Housing and sanitation: Some aspects of medieval Islamic public service.” In The Islamic City, edited by A. H. Hourani and S. M. Stern, 179–194. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Schiffer, M. B. 1996 [1987]. Formation Processes of the Archaeological Record. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.

Segal, O. 2011. “Ramla, Weizmann Street.” HA-ESI 123: http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/Report_Detail_Eng.aspx?id=1868&mag_id=118.

Sharon, M. 2009. Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarum Palaestinae, vol. 4: G. Leiden: Brill.

----- 2004. Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarum Palaestinae, vol. 3: D–F. Leiden: Brill.

Shmueli, O. and B. Artzi. 2006. “Ramla.” HA-ESI 118: http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/report_detail_eng.aspx?id=389&mag_id=111.

Shmueli, O. and H. Goldfus. 2015. “The early Islamic city of Ramla in light of new archaeological discoveries, G.I.S. applications,and a
re-examination of the literary sources.” In Material Evidence and Narrative Sources, edited by D. Talmon-Heller and K. Cytryn-Silverman, 267–300. Leiden: Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004279667_013

Sidi, N., S. Gudovitch and Y. Dagan. 2008. “Ramla.” HA-ESI 120: http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/Report_Detail_Eng.aspx?id=813&mag_id=114.

Sion, O. 2009. “Ramla, Railway Station.” HA-ESI 121: http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/Report_Detail_Eng.aspx?id=1237&mag_id=115.

----- 2010. “Ramla.” HA-ESI 122: http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/report_detail_eng.aspx?id=1486&mag_id=117.

Swelim, T. 2015. Ibn Tulun: His Lost City and Great Mosque. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press.

Syon, D. 2011. “Horbat Rehav.” HA-ESI 123: http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/Report_Detail_eng.aspx?print=nopic&id=1635&mag_id=118.

Syon, D. and E. J. Stern. 2014. “Excavations at the Dar el-Gharbiya neighborhood of Kafr Yasif: A Crusader estate in the territory of ?Akko.” ?Atiqot 79: 233–261.

Al-?abar?, Mu?ammad ibn Jar?r (d. 923). 1879–1901. Ta’r?kh al-Rusul wa-l-mul?k, 15 vols., edited by M.J. De Goeje. Leiden: Brill.

Tabbaa, Y. 1994. “The transformation of Arabic writing: Part 2, the public text.” Ars Orientalis 24: 119–147.

Tal, O. and I. Taxel. 2008. Ramla (South): An Early Islamic Industrial Site and Remains of Previous Periods, Salvage Excavation Report 5. Tel Aviv.

Taxel, I. 2009. “Between Jaffa and Apolonia—Tel Aviv Area during the Late Roman, Byzantine and Early Muslim periods.”
In The Hidden History of Tel Aviv, edited by E. Ayalon, 112–139*. Tel Aviv: Eretz Israel Museum.

Torgë, H. 2005. “Azor.” HA-ESI 117: http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/Report_Detail_Eng.aspx?id=131&mag_id=110.

----- 2010. “Khirbat el-Ni?ana.” HA-ESI 122: http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/Report_Detail_Eng.aspx?id=1455&mag_id=117.

----- 2017. “The development of Ramla during the Early Islamic period in light of the archaeological evidence.” Unpublished PhD thesis, Bar-Ilan University.

----- 2018. “Ramla between al-Muqaddas? and N??ir-i Khusraw.” Cathedra 166: 47–68*.

Toueg, R. 2007. “Excavation in Marcus Street, Ramla: Stratigraphy.” Contract Archaeology Reports 2: 12–37.

----- 2008. “Ramla.” HA-ESI 120: http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/Report_Detail_Eng.aspx?id=872&mag_id=114.

----- 2011. “Ramla, Bar-Ilan Street.” HA-ESI 123: http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/Report_Detail_Eng.aspx?id=1770&mag_id=118.

----- 2012. “Ramla, Ibn Sina School.” HA-ESI 124: http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/report_detail_eng.aspx?id=2066&mag_id=119.

Toueg, R. and Y. D. Arnon. 2010. “Ramla, the Pool of the Arches.” HA-ESI 122: http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/Report_Detail_Eng.aspx?id=1575&mag_id=117.

----- 2011. “Ramla.” HA-ESI 123: http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/Report_Detail_Eng.aspx?id=1918&mag_id=118.

Treadwell, L. 2017. “The numismatic evidence for the reign of A?mad b. ??l?n (254–270/868-883).” Al-?U??r al-Wus?? 25: 14–40.

Van Berchem, M. 1897. Inscriptions arabes de Syrie. La Caire: Extrait des mémoires de l’institut égyptien. https://doi.org/10.3406/crai.1897.70950

----- 1927. Matériaux pour un corpus inscriptionum arabcarum, deuxiéme partie Syrie du Sud, Vol. 2: Jerusalem, ?akhra, Mémoires de l’institut français d’archéologie orientale 44. Le Caire: Imprimerie de l’institut français d’archéologie orientale.

Van den Brink, E.C.M. 2000. “Barqa (South).” HA-ESI 112: 125.

Van der Leeuw, S. E. 1981. “Information flows, flow structures and the explanation of change in human institutions.” In Archaeological Approaches to the Study of Complexity, edited by S. E. Van der Leeuw, 230–312. Amsterdam: Universiteit van Amsterdam.

Vitto, F. 1998. “Ma?oza D-Yamnin: A mosaic floor from the time of Eudocia?” ?Atiqot 35: 117–134.

Le Marquis De Vogüé, M. 1864. Le Temple de Jérusalem, monographie du Haram-ech-Chérif, Suirie d’un Essai sur la topographie de la Ville-Sainte. Paris: Noblet and Baudry.

Volynsky, F. and L. Talmi. 2011. “Rehovot, Kramim Neighborhood.” HA-ESI 123: http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/Report_Detail_Eng.aspx?id=1911&mag_id=118.

Walmsley, A. 1999. “Coin frequencies in sixth and seventh century Palestine and Arabia: Social and economic implications.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 42(3): 326–350. https://doi.org/10.1163/1568520991208644

----- 2007. Early Islamic Syria: An Archaeological Assessment. Bath: Duckworth.

Warren, J. 1991. “Creswell’s use of the theory of dating by the acuteness of the pointed arches in early Muslim architecture.” Muqarnas 8: 59–65. https://doi.org/10.2307/1523154

Weinberger, D. 2011. “Lod, the northern industrial region.” HA-ESI 123: http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/Report_Detail_Eng.aspx?id=1843&mag_id=118.

Weksler-Bdolah, S. 2000. “Yad Benyamin.” Hadashot Arkheologiyot 112: 123–125 (Hebrew. English summary: *98).

Weksler-Bdolah, S. and A. Golani. 2000. “Tel Malot.” HA-ESI 112: 88-89 (Hebrew. English summary: *70).

Whitcomb, D. 1987. “Excavation in Aqaba: First preliminary report.” Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan 31: 247–266.

----- 1995. “Islam and socio-cultural transition of Palestine: Early Islamic period (638–1099 CE).” In The Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land, edited by T. E. Levy, 488–501. London: Leicester University.

----- 2012. “Formation of the Islamic City: A second archaeological period of urban transition.” In Proceedings of the 7th International Congress on the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, Vol. 2, edited by R. Matthews and J. Curtis, 619–631. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.

Yannai, E. 2014. “Yavne.” HA-ESI 126: http://www.hadashot-esi.org.il/Report_Detail_Eng.aspx?id=13677&mag_id=121.

Y?q?t, Ya ?q?b ibn ?Abd All?h (d. 1229). 1866-1870. Mu?jam al-buld?n, Jacut‘s geographisches Wörterbuch aus den Handschriften aus Berlin, St. Petersburg und Paris, 6 vols., edited by F. Wüstenfeld. Leipzig: Brockhaus.

Published

2019-09-18

Issue

Section

Articles

How to Cite

Nol, H. (2019). Dating Early Islamic Sites through Architectural Elements: A Case Study from Central Israel. Journal of Islamic Archaeology, 6(1), 41-80. https://doi.org/10.1558/jia.37248