The Language Zone
Differentiating writing instruction for students who are d/Deaf and hard of hearing
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1558/wap.30045Keywords:
INTERACTIVE WRITING, WRITING INSTRUCTION, DEAF EDUCATIONAbstract
Interactive Writing (IW) is a powerful support for language and literacy development; however, its emphasis on using oral language to construct written language can present challenges for deaf/Deaf and hard of hearing (d/Dhh) students due to their unique and diverse language experiences. Teachers (n = 14) using Strategic and Interactive Writing Instruction (SIWI) with grade 3–5 d/Dhh students in a variety of settings were observed using a space referred to as ‘the language zone’ to address the unique language and literacy needs of d/Dhh students. The language zone is the designated space in a classroom where the creation, translation and revision of ideas is made visible. Researchers developed a flowchart with three tiers to document the three purposes for which the teachers use the space. Accompanying scenarios provide concrete examples of three distinct ways in which the language zone can be used. Teachers can use this language zone flow chart as a tool to recognize, analyze and select instructional moves that have the potential to positively impact the language and literacy proficiencies of d/Dhh students.Acknowledgments: The research reported here was supported by the Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, through Grant R324A120085 to the University of Tennessee. The opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not represent views of the Institute or the U.S. Department of Education.
References
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https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.98.4.714
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Dostal, H. and Wolbers, K. (2014). Developing language and writing skills of deaf and hard of hearing students: A simultaneous approach. Literacy Research and Instruction, 53 (3), 245-268. https://doi.org/10.1080/19388071.2014.907382
Dostal, H. and Wolbers, K. (2016). Examining Student Writing Proficiencies Across Genres: Results of an intervention study. Deafness & Education International, 18:3, 159-169. https://doi.org/10.1080/14643154.2016.1230415
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Evans, C. (1998). Two languages, one goal: Literacy learning in deaf students. CAEDHH Journal/La Revue ACESM, 25 (1-3), 6-19. https://doi.org/10.1353/aad.2004.0011ga
Fountas, I. and Pinnell, G. (2001). Guiding Readers and Writers (Grades 3-6): Teaching, Comprehension, Genre, and Content Literacy. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Graham, S. and Harris, K. R. (1989). Improving learning disabled students' skills at composing essays: Self-instructional strategy training. Exceptional Children, 56, 201-214. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440298905600305
Graham, S., McKeown, D., Kiuhara, S., and Harris, K. R. (2012). A meta-analysis of writing instruction for students in the elementary grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104 (4), 879-896. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029185
Graham, S. and Perin, D. (2007). Writing Next: Effective Strategies to Improve Writing of Adolescents in Middle and High Schools - A report to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education.
Hedgcock, J. (2012). Second language writing processes among adolescent and adult learners. In E. L. Grigorenko, E. Mambrino, and D. D. Preiss (Eds), Writing: A Mosaic of New Perspectives, 219-237. New York: Psychology Press.
Hinkel, E. (2002). Second Language Writers' Text: Linguistic and Rhetorical Features. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410602848
Hulk, A., and Muller, N. (2000). Bilingual first language acquisition at the interface between syntax and pragmatics. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 3 (3), 227-244. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728900000353
Jackendoff, R. (1994). Patterns in the Mind. New York: BasicBooks.
Jones, D. C., Reutzel, D. R., and Fargo, J. D. (2010). Comparing two methods of writing instruction: Effects on kindergarten students' reading skills. The Journal of Educational Research, 103 (5), 327-341.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00220670903383119
Krashen, S. D. (1994). The input hypothesis and its rivals. In N. C. Ellis (Ed.), Implicit and Explicit Learning of Languages, 45-77. London: Academic Press Limited.
Lederberg, A. R., Antia, S., Branum-Martin, L., Easterbrooks, S., Kushalnagar, P., and Schick, B. (2015, July). Language and literacy learning of deaf and hard of hearing children. Symposium presented at the meeting of the International Congress on the Education of the Deaf, Athens, Greece.
Lederberg, A. R. and Spencer, P. E. (2001). Vocabulary development of deaf and hard of hearing children. In M. D. Clark, M. Marschark, and M. Karchmer (Eds), Context, Cognition, and Deafness, 88-112. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press.
Mariage, T. V. (2001). Features of an interactive writing discourse: Conversational involvement, conventional knowledge, and internalization in 'Morning Message'. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 34, 172-196. https://doi.org/10.1177/002221940103400206
McCarrier, A., Pinnell, G. and Fountas, I. (2000). Interactive Writing: How Language and Literacy Come Together, K-2. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
McKenzie, M. (1985). Shared Writing: Apprenticeship in Writing in Language Matters. London: Centre for Language in Primary Education.
Menéndez, B. (2010). Cross-modal bilingualism: Language contact as evidence of linguistic transfer in sign bilingual education. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 13 (2), 201-223.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050903474101
Niederberger, N. (2008). Does the knowledge of a natural sign language facilitate deaf children's learning to write?. In C. Plaza-Pust, and E. Morales-Lopéz (Eds), Sign Bilingualism: Language Development, Interaction, and Maintenance in Sign Language Contact Situations, 29-50. Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins North America.
Parasnis, I. (1998). Cultural and Language Diversity and the Deaf Experience. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge Press.
Power, D., Hyde, M., and Leigh, G. (2008). Learning English from signed English: An impossible task? American Annals of the Deaf, 153, 37-47. https://doi.org/10.1353/aad.0.0008
Roth, K. and Guinee, K. (2011). Ten minutes a day: The impact of interactive writing instruction on first graders' independent writing. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy, 11 (3), 331-361.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1468798411409300
Scardamalia, M. and Bereiter, C. (1986). Research on written composition. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Teaching (3rd ed.), 778-803. New York: Macmillan.
Schleppegrell, M. J. (2013). The role of metalanguage in supporting academic language development. Language Learning, 63, 153-170. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2012.00742.x
Schick, B. and Moeller, M. P. (1992). What is learnable in manually coded English sign systems? Applied Psycholinguistics, 13, 313-340. https://doi.org/10.1017/S014271640000566X
Singleton, J. L., Morgan, D., DiGello, E., Wiles, J., and Rivers, R. (2004). Vocabulary use by low, moderate, and high ASL-proficient writers compared to hearing ESL and monolingual speakers. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 9 (1), 86-103. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/enh011
Valdes, G. (2006). Bilingual minorities and language issues in writing: Toward profession wide responses to a new challenge. In P. K. Matsuda, M. Cox, J. Jordan, and C. Ortmeier-Hooper (Eds), Second-language Writing in the Composition Classroom: A Critical Sourcebook, 31-70. Boston, MA: Bedford St. Martin's.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.1037/11193-000
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Wall, H. (2008). Interactive writing beyond the primary grades. The Reading Teacher, 62 (2), 149-152. https://doi.org/10.1598/RT.62.2.6
Williams, C. (2011). Adapted interactive writing instruction with kindergarten children who are deaf or hard of hearing. American Annals of the Deaf, 156 (1), 23-34. https://doi.org/10.1353/aad.2011.0011
Wolbers, K. (2010). Using ASL and print-based sign to build fluency and greater independence with written English among deaf students. L1-Educational Studies in Language and Literature, 10, 99-125.
Wolbers, K., Bowers, L, Dostal, H., and Graham, S. (2013). Deaf writers' application of ASL knowledge to English. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2013.816262
Wolbers, K., Dostal, H., and Bowers, L. (2012). I was born full deaf: An examination of written language outcomes across one year of Strategic and Interactive Writing Instruction (SIWI). Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 17 (1), 19-38. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/enr018
Wolbers, K., Dostal, H., and Bowers, L. (2012). I was born full deaf: An examination of written language outcomes across one year of Strategic and Interactive Writing Instruction (SIWI). Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 17 (1), 19-38. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/enr018
Wolbers, K., Dostal, H., Graham, S., Cihak, D., Kilpatrick, J., and Saulsburry R. (2015b). The writing performance of elementary students receiving Strategic and Interactive Writing Instruction.?Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 20 (4), 385-398.?https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/env022
Wolbers, K., Dostal, H., and Graham, S. (2012-July 2015). Development of Strategic and Interactive Writing Instruction (SIWI) for deaf and hard of hearing students. Funded by the Institute of Education Sciences (IES).
Wolbers, K., Dostal, H., Graham, S., Branum-Martin, L., Kilpatrick, J. and Saulsburry, R. (2018). Strategic and Interactive Writing Instruction: An efficacy study in grades 3-5. Journal of Educational and Developmental Psychology. https://doi.org/10.5539/jedp.v8n1p99
Wolbers, K., Graham, S., Dostal, H., and Bowers, L. (2014). A description of ASL features in writing. Ampersand, 1, 19-27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amper.2014.11.001
Woodall, B., 2002. Language-switching: Using the first language while writing in a second language. Journal of Second Language Writing, 11, 7-28. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1060-3743(01)00051-0
Baker, C. and Jones, S. (1998). Encyclopedia of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Bhela, B. (1999). Native language interference in learning a second language: Exploratory case studies of native language interference with target language usage. International Education Journal, 1 (1), 22-31. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1984.tb00341.x
Bialystok, E. (2001). Acquisition of bilingual children: A framework for research. Language Learning, 57, 45-77. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2007.00412.x
Booth Olson, C., and Land, R. (2007). A cognitive strategies approach to reading and writing instruction for English language learners in secondary school. Research in the Teaching of English, 41 (3), 269-303.
Button, K., Johnson, M., and Furgeson, P. (1996). Interactive writing in a primary classroom. The Reading Teacher, 49 (6), 446-454.
Calkins, L. (1994). The Art of Teaching Writing (2nd ed.). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Craig, S. (2003). The effects of an adapted interactive writing intervention on kindergarten children's phonological awareness, spelling, and early reading development. Reading Research Quarterly, 38 (4), 438-440. https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.38.4.1
Craig, S. (2006). The effects of an adapted interactive writing intervention on kindergarten children's phonological awareness, spelling, and early reading development: A contextualized approach to instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98 (4), 714-731.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.98.4.714
De Oliveira, L. C. and Schleppegrell, M. J. (2015). Focus on Grammar and Meaning. Oxford: Oxford University Press.?
Dostal, H. (2011). Developing Students' First Language through a Second Language Writing Intervention: A simultaneous approach (Data from doctoral dissertation). University of Tennessee, Knoxville.
Dostal, H., Bowers, L., Wolbers, K., and Gabriel, R. (2015). "We are authors": A qualitative analysis of deaf students writing during one year of Strategic and Interactive Writing (SIWI). The Review of Disability Studies: An international journal, 11 (2), 1-19.
Dostal, H. and Wolbers, K. (2014). Developing language and writing skills of deaf and hard of hearing students: A simultaneous approach. Literacy Research and Instruction, 53 (3), 245-268. https://doi.org/10.1080/19388071.2014.907382
Dostal, H. and Wolbers, K. (2016). Examining Student Writing Proficiencies Across Genres: Results of an intervention study. Deafness & Education International, 18:3, 159-169. https://doi.org/10.1080/14643154.2016.1230415
Durgunoglu, A. Y. (1997). Bilingual reading: Its components, development, and other issues. In A. M. B. de Groot and J. F. Kroll (Eds), Tutorials in Bilingualism, 255-276. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Easterbrooks, S. R., and Beal-Alvarez, J. S. (2012). States' reading outcomes of students who are d/Deaf and hard of hearing. American Annals of the Deaf, 157 (1), 27-40. https://doi.org/10.1353/aad.2012.1611
Easterbrooks, S. R., Lederberg, A. R., Antia, S., Schick, B., Kushalnagar, P., Webb, M., Branum-Martin, L., and Connor, C. M. (2015). Reading among diverse DHH learners: What, how, and for whom?. American Annals of the Deaf, 159 (5), 419-432. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/env024
Ellis, R., Loewen, S., Elder, C., Erlam, R., Philp, J., Reinders, H. (2009). Implicit and Explicit Knowledge in Second Language Learning, Testing and Teaching. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Englert, C. S., and Mariage, T. V. (1991). Shared understandings: Structuring the writing experience through dialogue.?Journal of Learning Disabilities, 24 (6), 330-343. https://doi.org/10.1177/002221949102400602
Englert, C. S., Raphael, T. E., Anderson, L. M., Anthony, H. M., and Stevens, D. D. (1991). Making strategies and self-talk visible: Writing instruction in regular and special education classrooms. American Educational Research Journal, 28, 337-372. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312028002337
Englert, C. S., Garmon, A., Mariage, T. V., Rozendal, M., Tarrant, K., and Urba, J. (1995). The early literacy project: Connecting across the literacy curriculum.? Learning Disability Quarterly, 18, 253-275. https://doi.org/10.2307/1511233
Englert, C. S. and Dunsmore, K. (2002). A diversity of teaching and learning paths: Teaching writing in situated activity. In J. Brophy (Ed.), Social Constructivist Teaching: Affordances and Constraints. Boston: JAI. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1479-3687(02)80006-2
Evans, C. (1998). Two languages, one goal: Literacy learning in deaf students. CAEDHH Journal/La Revue ACESM, 25 (1-3), 6-19. https://doi.org/10.1353/aad.2004.0011ga
Fountas, I. and Pinnell, G. (2001). Guiding Readers and Writers (Grades 3-6): Teaching, Comprehension, Genre, and Content Literacy. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Graham, S. and Harris, K. R. (1989). Improving learning disabled students' skills at composing essays: Self-instructional strategy training. Exceptional Children, 56, 201-214. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440298905600305
Graham, S., McKeown, D., Kiuhara, S., and Harris, K. R. (2012). A meta-analysis of writing instruction for students in the elementary grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104 (4), 879-896. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029185
Graham, S. and Perin, D. (2007). Writing Next: Effective Strategies to Improve Writing of Adolescents in Middle and High Schools - A report to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education.
Hedgcock, J. (2012). Second language writing processes among adolescent and adult learners. In E. L. Grigorenko, E. Mambrino, and D. D. Preiss (Eds), Writing: A Mosaic of New Perspectives, 219-237. New York: Psychology Press.
Hinkel, E. (2002). Second Language Writers' Text: Linguistic and Rhetorical Features. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410602848
Hulk, A., and Muller, N. (2000). Bilingual first language acquisition at the interface between syntax and pragmatics. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 3 (3), 227-244. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728900000353
Jackendoff, R. (1994). Patterns in the Mind. New York: BasicBooks.
Jones, D. C., Reutzel, D. R., and Fargo, J. D. (2010). Comparing two methods of writing instruction: Effects on kindergarten students' reading skills. The Journal of Educational Research, 103 (5), 327-341.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00220670903383119
Krashen, S. D. (1994). The input hypothesis and its rivals. In N. C. Ellis (Ed.), Implicit and Explicit Learning of Languages, 45-77. London: Academic Press Limited.
Lederberg, A. R., Antia, S., Branum-Martin, L., Easterbrooks, S., Kushalnagar, P., and Schick, B. (2015, July). Language and literacy learning of deaf and hard of hearing children. Symposium presented at the meeting of the International Congress on the Education of the Deaf, Athens, Greece.
Lederberg, A. R. and Spencer, P. E. (2001). Vocabulary development of deaf and hard of hearing children. In M. D. Clark, M. Marschark, and M. Karchmer (Eds), Context, Cognition, and Deafness, 88-112. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press.
Mariage, T. V. (2001). Features of an interactive writing discourse: Conversational involvement, conventional knowledge, and internalization in 'Morning Message'. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 34, 172-196. https://doi.org/10.1177/002221940103400206
McCarrier, A., Pinnell, G. and Fountas, I. (2000). Interactive Writing: How Language and Literacy Come Together, K-2. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
McKenzie, M. (1985). Shared Writing: Apprenticeship in Writing in Language Matters. London: Centre for Language in Primary Education.
Menéndez, B. (2010). Cross-modal bilingualism: Language contact as evidence of linguistic transfer in sign bilingual education. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 13 (2), 201-223.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050903474101
Niederberger, N. (2008). Does the knowledge of a natural sign language facilitate deaf children's learning to write?. In C. Plaza-Pust, and E. Morales-Lopéz (Eds), Sign Bilingualism: Language Development, Interaction, and Maintenance in Sign Language Contact Situations, 29-50. Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins North America.
Parasnis, I. (1998). Cultural and Language Diversity and the Deaf Experience. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge Press.
Power, D., Hyde, M., and Leigh, G. (2008). Learning English from signed English: An impossible task? American Annals of the Deaf, 153, 37-47. https://doi.org/10.1353/aad.0.0008
Roth, K. and Guinee, K. (2011). Ten minutes a day: The impact of interactive writing instruction on first graders' independent writing. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy, 11 (3), 331-361.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1468798411409300
Scardamalia, M. and Bereiter, C. (1986). Research on written composition. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Teaching (3rd ed.), 778-803. New York: Macmillan.
Schleppegrell, M. J. (2013). The role of metalanguage in supporting academic language development. Language Learning, 63, 153-170. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2012.00742.x
Schick, B. and Moeller, M. P. (1992). What is learnable in manually coded English sign systems? Applied Psycholinguistics, 13, 313-340. https://doi.org/10.1017/S014271640000566X
Singleton, J. L., Morgan, D., DiGello, E., Wiles, J., and Rivers, R. (2004). Vocabulary use by low, moderate, and high ASL-proficient writers compared to hearing ESL and monolingual speakers. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 9 (1), 86-103. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/enh011
Valdes, G. (2006). Bilingual minorities and language issues in writing: Toward profession wide responses to a new challenge. In P. K. Matsuda, M. Cox, J. Jordan, and C. Ortmeier-Hooper (Eds), Second-language Writing in the Composition Classroom: A Critical Sourcebook, 31-70. Boston, MA: Bedford St. Martin's.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.1037/11193-000
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Wall, H. (2008). Interactive writing beyond the primary grades. The Reading Teacher, 62 (2), 149-152. https://doi.org/10.1598/RT.62.2.6
Williams, C. (2011). Adapted interactive writing instruction with kindergarten children who are deaf or hard of hearing. American Annals of the Deaf, 156 (1), 23-34. https://doi.org/10.1353/aad.2011.0011
Wolbers, K. (2010). Using ASL and print-based sign to build fluency and greater independence with written English among deaf students. L1-Educational Studies in Language and Literature, 10, 99-125.
Wolbers, K., Bowers, L, Dostal, H., and Graham, S. (2013). Deaf writers' application of ASL knowledge to English. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2013.816262
Wolbers, K., Dostal, H., and Bowers, L. (2012). I was born full deaf: An examination of written language outcomes across one year of Strategic and Interactive Writing Instruction (SIWI). Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 17 (1), 19-38. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/enr018
Wolbers, K., Dostal, H., and Bowers, L. (2012). I was born full deaf: An examination of written language outcomes across one year of Strategic and Interactive Writing Instruction (SIWI). Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 17 (1), 19-38. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/enr018
Wolbers, K., Dostal, H., Graham, S., Cihak, D., Kilpatrick, J., and Saulsburry R. (2015b). The writing performance of elementary students receiving Strategic and Interactive Writing Instruction.?Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 20 (4), 385-398.?https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/env022
Wolbers, K., Dostal, H., and Graham, S. (2012-July 2015). Development of Strategic and Interactive Writing Instruction (SIWI) for deaf and hard of hearing students. Funded by the Institute of Education Sciences (IES).
Wolbers, K., Dostal, H., Graham, S., Branum-Martin, L., Kilpatrick, J. and Saulsburry, R. (2018). Strategic and Interactive Writing Instruction: An efficacy study in grades 3-5. Journal of Educational and Developmental Psychology. https://doi.org/10.5539/jedp.v8n1p99
Wolbers, K., Graham, S., Dostal, H., and Bowers, L. (2014). A description of ASL features in writing. Ampersand, 1, 19-27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amper.2014.11.001
Woodall, B., 2002. Language-switching: Using the first language while writing in a second language. Journal of Second Language Writing, 11, 7-28. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1060-3743(01)00051-0
Published
2019-06-20
Issue
Section
Research Matters
How to Cite
Dostal, H., Wolbers, K., & Kilpatrick, J. (2019). The Language Zone: Differentiating writing instruction for students who are d/Deaf and hard of hearing. Writing and Pedagogy, 11(1), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1558/wap.30045
